Cloning plants

5.12 Describe the use of restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites and ligase enzymes to join pieces of DNA together

- Restriction enzyme is able to cut the DNA
- Cut DNA at particular position which creates restriction enzyme
- DNA ligase join DNA together
- Restriction cuts
- The DNA ligase joins

5.11 Understand that animals with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding

- Milk yield - shared through cows by quarter of produced - some cows only produce about 100 ml
- Farmer collects all milk yet leaves part of milk for breeding more cows
- Next generation produces increased amount of milk
- Cows produce high yield become breeding population become selective
- develop desired characteristic by selective breeding which is milk yield - genetic genes

5.10 Understand that plants with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding

- Some plants have 6 grains per stem, others have 8 grains and some have 10 grains per stem.
- Farmer harvests grain but 10 grains are for selective breeding
- next generation would increase to 8, 10 and 12 but this time 12 grains per stem would be used for the selective breeding
- rice gradually increases so, the yield increase

5.9 Large Farming

- Fish farming-low fat and high protein
- efficient of turning there nutrients into fish mass
Positives:
- Quality Control of water
- Can control predators
- can reduce pests
- Can control disease
These lead to increase of fish

5.8 - Fermentation

Fermentation is the process by which yeast converts the glucose in the wort to ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide gas -- giving the beer both its alcohol content and its carbonation.
Equation: glucose, ethanol + carbon dioxide

5.7 - Lactobacillus in Yoghurt

- Cow produces milk
- Remove TB heat: pasturation – kills pathogens in the milk
- Add lactobaculus enzymes – lactic acid and sugars to milk
- Lower acidic conditions
- Add milk proteins
- Control solidity of milk
Produced:
YOGUHRT

5.5 - Beer Production

- Starch to Amylase :germination of seed (malting) produces maltose, into maltase into Glucose

Starch comes from:
- Barley Seeds
- Wheat Seeds
- Rice
(Glucose from Starch)

EQUATION: Glucose --anaerobic respiration (yeast supplies enzymes for conversion) ----> ethanol + CO2 + Hops

HOPS FLAVOURS PRODUCT (from plant)

5.4 understand the reasons for pest control and the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control with crop plants

- Pesticides
Advantages: Very effective, easy to apply, easy to obtain

Disadvantages: Toxic (kill other plants and can harm humans), Bio accumulation, Resistance (Mutation in the pests - leads to resistance)

- Biological Control
Advantages: No toxic chemicals, Less impact on wildlife

Disadvantages: Not 100% effective, Difficult to control, difficult to match a predator to prey, it can take a long time

5.3 understand the use of fertiliser to increase crop yield

- Fertilizer is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants
- Are nitrate and phosphate
- Divided into two groups: organic and artificial
- Organic: animal waste, cow facades, decomposition.
- Artificial: chemical

5.2 Understand the effects on crop yield of increased carbon dioxide and increased temperature in glasshouses

- Rate of photosynthesis =CO2 + H2O----> glucose + oxygen
- Increased concentration of CO2 is substrate
- Higher increase of temperature leading to increase of the rate of reactions
- OPTIMUM: Peak of which something works at its very best

5.1 Describe how glasshouses and polythene tunnels can be used to increase the yield of certain crops

- Light penetrates through the glass into the internal surfaces
- Light is absorbed by surfaces inside the glasshouse (eg. Plants, Wood and soil)
- The surfaces would re emitted as heat, heats warm the air
- The heat warms the air, raising its average kinetic energy causing the temperature to increase
- Warm air becomes trapped inside the glasshouse

2.89 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: ADH, adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen

ADH:
- Source: Hypothalamus.
-Promotes water conservation the kidneys.

Insulin:
- Source: Made by cells in the pancreas.
- Lowers blood glucose levels

Adrenaline:
- Source: Adrenal gland.
- Readys body for physical fight or flight response
- Increases heart rate

Testosterone:
- Source: Testes gland.
- Controls development of male (Puberty)

Oestrogen:
- Source: Ovary gland.
- Controls development of female (Puberty)

Progesterone:
- Source: Ovary gland.
- Regulates menstrual cycle (women)

2.88 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to sweating vasoconstriction and vasodilation

- Core temperature is controlled by Hypothalamus.
- The skin regulates body temperature to protect against hyperthermia and hypothermia.
- Skin is responsible for temperature regulation within our body. The core temperature of our body is 37 C.
Vasoconstriction
- capillaries narrows, so they carry less blood. This keeps heat inside the body, reduces sweating.
- Hair erection.
- Shivering.
- Insulation (from a layer of fat under the skin).

Vasodilation
- Capillaries widened so more blood can be carried to the surface. heat transferred out of the body through conduction and radiation.
- Sweating
- Hairs lay flat

2.86 Describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptor, 2.87 understand the function of the eye in focusing near and distant objects, and in responding to changes in light intensity

Structure:

1. CORNEA
2. EPITHELIUM
3. IRIS
4. PUPIL
5. RETINA
6. SCLERA
7. LENS

Sight is the transmission of light signals through nerve endings to the brain, which interprets the signals and produces visions of what is seen.

- Light enters the eye first through the cornea
- The pupil is the opening that controls how much light passes from the cornea to the lens. The iris, the colored portion of the eye, is actually two sets of muscle fibers that control the size of the pupil.
- Light travels from the lens through a chamber filled with vitreous humor, a semi-solid that helps the eye keep its shape.
- The retina is the back of the inside of the eye and contains light receptors. The receptors are nerve endings with a direct link to the brain via the optic nerve.
- Receptors in the eye consist of rods and cones. Rods detect light regardless of wavelength and help the brain determine light intensity, whether it is bright or dim.
- Cones are only active in bright light and are particular to red, blue, or green. Each type of cone detects a particular light wavelength.

2.84 Responses/ 2.85 Reflexes

Responses
- A reflex is an action that is performed as a response to a stimulus and without conscious thought eg. moving your hand out of the sun.
- The sensory nerve sends an electrical impulse into the nerves through your arm and up to the Central Nervous System.
- The motor nerve sends the signal to the effector and your body reacts to it.

Reflex actions
- The sensory neuron carries the message from the receptor to the motor neuron which carries the message to the effector to make the interneurons work.
- Reflex actions are rapid and done without thought.

- pain receptor detects a stimulus.
- sensory nerve sends the electrical impulse to the CNS.
- the motor nerve sends the signal to the effector.
- the effector produces a response.

2.83 Central Nervous System

- The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system that integrates the information that it receives from, and coordinates the activity of, all parts of the bodies.
- This excludes:sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish.
- It contains the majority of the nervous system and consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
- Together with the peripheral nervous system, it has a fundamental role in the control of behavior.
- The CNS is contained within the dorsal cavity, with the brain in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord in the spinal cavity.

2.82 Communication

- Nerve impulse is carried along the inside of the nerve from the cell body to the Synaptic Knob where it connects to the muscle - causing it to extend or retract.
- The endocrine gland produces a chemical known as a hormone.
- The Myelin Sheath increases the nerve conduction between components.
- In mammals the axon is surrounded by a Schwann Cell (contains fat)
- Hormones can be proteins or steroids

2.77b Thermoregulation

- Negative feedback loop - method of control and maintaining constant conditions.
- The average body temperature of a human is 37/38 degrees centigrade.
- In order for it to work we have receptors of body temperature - hypothalamus.
- Responds to a stimulus - temp of body and blood.
- Body temperature feeds into the brain and is compared to the theoretical level of control. (37/38degrees).
- If the body temperature needs to be increased of decreased then it is brought about through the action of the effector.

- Input into hypothalamus, stimulates responses in the skin for cooling, sweating + increased blood flow.
- Blood vessels dilate (widen)

2.77a Thermoregulation

- Homeothermic: Same Temperature.
- Homeostasis: Conditions are kept the same or are constant.
- Mammals remain the same body temperature.
- Homeothermic carries out a process called Thermoregulation.
- no matter the increase or decrease of the surrounding temp. the mouses will stay the same.

2.76 Sensitivity

- Sensitivity is the characteristic of the organisms respond to changes in their environment.
- Changes include: Light, temperature, pressure and chemical.
- Organisms are required to have receptors and effectors such as muscles and glands.
Response is used to survive the changes in the environment.