2.75 - Urine

- Role of brain influencing the kidneys
- Filtration of blood in the kidneys
- Resulting in the waste going into the bladder and coming out as urine

Urine contains: Salt, H2O and Urea
Salt and H2O affected by the composition of the tissue fluid called Osmoregulation.
The Removal of urea - part of the process of excretion of metabolic waste as the fluid beings to leave.

The composition of Urine varies - depends on the condition of which the person is operating.

2.74 - ADH

ADH - Anti Diuretic Hormone
Produced in the Hypothalamus (a part in the brain) - flows through the blood stream to it's target (the kidney)
ADH - controls and alters the composition of water in blood
Tissue is isotonic with the cytoplasm of the cell
ADH - targets the collecting duct (more accurate then kidney)
- It allows more water to come out of the collecting duct

- Collecting Duct: Where water is selectively reabsorbed into the blood
- this water goes back into the blood
- consequence of ADH secretion - Urine coming out will be more concentrated and will have a lower volume

- ADH response to a hot day
- ADH response to a cold day
- ADH response to dehydration

2.73 - Glucose re-absorption

Selective re-absorbtion means the molecule is selected and re-absorbtion means it will go from the glomereule filtrate back into the blood

- filtration occurs in Bowmans capsule - contains glucose in the plasma, along with H2O, Salt and urea.
- end of nephron is where the Urine comes out
- If you have glucose in your urine - it means you have diabetes either high or low deficiency.

- Proximal Convoluted Tubule - glucose is removed and taken back into the blood

2.72 - Water re-absorption

- In the Bowmans capsule - Ultrafiltration takes place
- When filtration occurs, it filters out too much water
- As filtrate passes along the tube and reaches Collecting Duct
- As it passes through the Collecting Duct - water is removes from the filtrate.
- It goes back into the blood stream

- Water has been selected and reabsorbed into the blood - Selected reabsorption

2.71 - Ultrafiltration

- Nephron of the kidney (shown) - carries out filtration of blood
two things : Filtered blood (clean blood) and waste blood, Urine

- Urine emerges from bottom of tubule, goes into pelvic region.
Bowman's capsule - where filtration begins - Ultrafiltration

Filtration begins when blood comes in the Afferent arteriole the high pressure makes it wide.
- starts to branch into twists and coils - Glomerulus
- Blood vessel coming out, develops high pressure
- High pressure forces the liquid in blood (Plasma) out of the blood vessel into the inside of the Bowmans capsule

Blood has been filtered by pressure due to the smaller diameter arteriole, generating a high pressure in the glomerulus, forcing the liquid into the tube

2.70 - Nephron Structure

- Branch of Aorta taking blood into the kidney is called the Renal Artery
- Kidney filters the blood
- Contents which are removed are called Urine (through Ureter) - collects in Bladder
- Filtered blood goes through the Renal Vein

Out region - Cortex
Inner region - Medulla
The Space where the urine collects and drains down the ureter

Tube starts on the edge of the medulla and goes out into the cortex, then winds and then drops down to the medulla again, then winds and comes to a dead end.
The dead end is called the Bowman's capsule.
The tube structure is called a Nephron

- IN DIAGRAM - Cortex
- IN DIAGRAM - Medulla
- Twisted sections - Convoluted tubules
- The dip - loop of Henlé
- Dead end cup shape structure - Bowman's Capsule
- Tight knot of blood vessels - Glomeruloui
- First twisted section - Proximal convoluted tubules (PCT)
- Second twisted section - Distal convoluted tubules (DCT)

2.69 - Urinary system

- 2 kidneys (left and right) - both have separate blood supply - carry out excretion, filtration and osmoregulation
- Which uses process of excretion and filtration.
- from each kidney there is a tube from the kidney to the bladder - the Ureter
Ureter carries urine from the kidney to the bladder
- common bladder for both ureters - urine is conducted to the outside of the body through the urethra down through the vagina or through the penis.

2.68b - Osmoregulation

- osmo - osmosis
- regulation - to control

1. danger to tissue - blood circulating into the tissue would be concentrated causing a hypertonic tissue fluid (remove to much water) or a hypotonic tissue fluid (add to much water)
2. need to control - achieved by controlling the composition of the blood
kidney controls the composition
excess salts and water is excreted in the kidney so this controls the blood
These maintain the cells functions.

2.68a - Excretion

- blood circulates to the liver and is converted into Urea
- it then re-enters the body and circulates to the kidneys.
- Kidneys then filter the Urea from the blood and the Urea is then added to water to form Urine which then travels down the Uritus
- Then collected in the bladder (form of Urine) - filtered blood then goes back to veins with toxic Urea removed

2.67b Human organs of Excretion

- Salt and water is from sweat.
1. Lungs - metabolic waste is carbon dioxide - from respiration
2. Kidneys - excretion of excess water, molecule Urea (nitrogen waste from amino acids) and Salts
3. Skin - excretion of water and salts as sweat and very small amounts of Urea

2.67a - Excretion in plants

Photosynthesis - leaf absorbs light energy and in this process it combines CO2 with water to form glucose and oxygen (given off as waste molecules)

CO2 + H2O ---> C6H12oO6 + O2 -> excretion

Respiration - glucose and oxygen (aerobic resp.) through enzyme reactions the glucose is broken down and forms ATP , water and carbon dioxide (as waste)
- Carbon dioxide is a metabolic waste - excretion

C6H12oO6 + O2 ---> ATP + H2O + H2O

Glucose molecule is broken down and energy is used to form ATP and get the waste of carbon dioxide and water given off.
The waste process is called Excretion.

3.20A and B Pedigree diagrams

3.21b Genetic Probabilities

3.21a Genetic Probabilities

3.18c Codominance

3.18b Genotypes

3.18a Phenotypes

3.19a P1 x P1 Cross

3.19b - F1 x F1 Cross

Board notes on genes from petals

3.2 Fertalisation

The adult male and female gametes are formed by meiosis.
When we have sufficient cells this will then be called an embryo.
The cells that are formed by meiosis have half as many chromosomes as the cell that formed them.
Fertilisation occurs when a male and female gamete join.
The zygote divides into a ball of cells, called the blastula which then grows to form the embryo.

3.9b - Female Reproductive System

- Vagina - collects the sperm cells and allows them to pass throw the cervix into the uterus
- Ovary - meiosis occurs and production of female gamete(eggs)
- Oviducts - carry the eggs to the uterus and where fertilization takes place. where sperm cells meet the egg cells.
- Uterus - wall of the uterus is made of muscle. stretches to accommodate pregnancy and contracts during birth.
- Lining of the uterus - develops the fertilized egg into the embryo and then the child. can see the development here of the placenta
- Cervix - entrance to the uterus - where sperm cells enter.
- Uterus space - where the sperm and egg cells move. Embryo develops into the unborn child

3.9a - Male Reproductive System

- Urethra - common tube that joins the left and right testis. takes semen/urine down the penis
- Penis - carries sperm cells into the vagina during sexual intercourse
- Bladder - Store urine
- Testis - 2 of them - carry out meiosis - produces the gamete, sperm
- epididymis - stored sperm cells
- vas deferens - carry sperm cells to the penis during sexual stimulation. the tube pulses making the walls contract and push the sperm from the testis to the penis
- prostate - adds about 20/30% of the volume of the semen. contains sugars and is alkali.
- Seminal Vesicles - 70& of the volume of the semen. contains sugars and is alkali

3.12 Amniotic fluid

In the uterus space there is the amniotic fluid
functions:
- can protect the developing embryo - comes from the fluid (largely water) not being able to be compressed.
- When you try to squeeze the fluid it absorbs the pressure.
- This means any blows or force applied to the uterus wall - the amniotic fluid will absorb this pressure and will prevent damage to the unborn child.

3.11 Placenta

when the child is in the uterus - water filled environment (amniotic fluids) - child cannot digest or breath or excrete

- baby obtains food - blood vessels lead from the embryo down the umbilical cord and then spread out to form placenta.
- placenta biologically grows out of the developing embryo. not out of the mother.
- blood vessels inside the placenta are the child's (veins and arteries)
- placenta grows into the lining of the uterus (wall)
- mother continues to eat and so in the blood vessel we have things like glucose, amino acids and fats. these travel through blood stream and into the wall of the uterus. they then cross into the childs blood at the placenta.
- to make this efficient the placenta has a large surface area and the barrier between the mother and childs blood is very thin.
- child produces CO2 and Urea which then goes back into the mothers blood.

Lesson Board

3.14 Chromosome disorders

3.24c - Mitosis

When a cell first breaks down it shows that it is entering the process of mitosis and cell division.
Chromosomes become visible as "chromotids" in a pair after the breakdown of the membrane.
As cell division carries on fibres form and each end of the cells.
Chromotids line up in the middle of the cell and are pulled apart by fibres.
The nucleus forms around the chromosomes at each end causing two nuclies.

Phases:
INTERPHASE
PROPHASE
LATE PHROPHASE
METAPHASE
ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE

3.24b Mitosis

• Chromosomes make identical copies of themselves.
• Two daughter cells form with the identical chromosomes and the parent cells.
• When this happens it is DNA replication.
• What hold the DNA together is something called the centromere which is located in the middle of the chromosome.
• When this occurs they are know as a pair of chromotids.

3.24 a - Mitosis

mitosis - cell division --> growth/increase in number of cells

Outline of process:

- begin with cell - with nucleus.
- number of chromosomes in the nucleus - diploid number (2n)
- for humans 2n = 46
- for cats 2n = 38

- mitosis - cell divides into two cells, each with nucleus, each cell has a diploid nucleus - these cells are identical/daughter cells
- identical because 1. Same number of chromosomes. 2. same set of chromosomes

3.16 DNA and Genetic information

- One chromosome contains thousands of genes.
- There are 4 kinds of bases called: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine.
- gene loci --> double helix - parallel
- double helix --> 'sugar - phospate backbone'
- in the center, group of molecules called bases
- Adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine
- in the molecule they are holding together the two helisis

- pairing between A-T and G-C - base pairs (ALWAYS in DNA)
- order of the bases on right side A, C, T, G, A, A, C, C, A, G --> this is the gene




- Gene in the nucleus - order of the bases (ATGC)
- number of the bases

this constructs a protein in the cytoplasm - gives characteristic

3.15 Genes

- Genes are located in the nucleus
- information passed to cytoplasm
- then transformed into protein
- this protein controls the characteristic

information flows from gene (nucleus) to protein (cytoplasm)

3.14 Chromosomes

- Genes control the production of protein which controls a characteristic.
- Chromosomes have a DNA that forms a shape which is called a double helix.

- chromosomes - genetic information within a cell
- in the nucleus - number of chromosomes.
- chromosomes - composed of DNA (double helix shape)

- Sections of the DNA are Genes, poissibly 1000s of genes
- genes carries information for the construction of a protein
- protein --> characteristic of the gene.


- different organisms have different number of chromosomes

- chromosomes operate in pairs - homologus pairs
- homologus nature depends on the length of the chromosomes
- position pointed out is the Gene Loci. on both homologus pairs the gene is the same at this point
- 1 version on each so in total 2 versions of each gene for one characteristics. They are called Alleles

4.9 Carbon Cycle

• C02+H20 are combined in photosynthesis using light energy.
• Light energy is trapped and used to form organic molecules such as glucose.
• The C02 comes from the atmosphere which makes 0.03% of the atmosphere.
• Photosynthesis is responsible for reducing the atmospheric C02.
• The passage of carbon through the various trophic level we have identified the producer
• The primary consumer takes in the carbon from the producer

4.14 increase in greenhouse gases results in an enhanced greenhouse effect and that this may lead to global warming and its consequences

- The enhanced green house effect is brought about by pollution molecules such as carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour, these are green house gases.

Water Vapor, Methane and Carbon dioxide are all greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse gases changes the climate.
The UV rays are increasingly re-emitted which warms the earth's surface.
Melting ice case, raising sea levels can happen due to Greenhouse gases.

4.13 how human activities contribute to greenhouse gases

1. FOSSIL FUELS
the combustion of fossil fuels from industries, cars and domestically
2. FARMING
cows produce methane which is a green house gas
3. CLOUDS
evaporation of water forming water vapours
4. REFRIGERATION/SOLVENTS (CFCs)
substances containing chlorine, fluorine and carbon

4.12 recall that water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane and CFCs are greenhouse gases

ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT
is when more of the greenhouse gases are produced absorbing more of the infrared reflecting out of earth and immiting it back onto the earths surface increasing the temperature further leading to climate change

CFC - Cluorofluorocarbon
effects the ozone layer which absorbs UV light making it less efficient in absorbing UV light.

UV light comes from the sun.
UV light is converted as infrared and absorbed.
50% of UV light is reflected.
The more the greenhouse gases the more heat there is.
Infrared gets emitted back out.

4.11 understand the biological consequences of pollution of the air by sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide

SULPHUR DIOXIDE ( SO2 gas )
- is produced in the combustion of fossil fuels and also by vehicles in the combustion of petrol
- when SO2 gas is produced it reacts with water vapour in the air and forms sulphuric acid which is found in the water that condenses as clouds, this is known as acid rain.
EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN
acid rain effects plants and animals in a variety of ways

The burning of fossil fuels results in sulphur dioxide gas.
Sulphur dioxide happens mostly because of factories and cars.
Acid rain kills fish in lakes and rivers.
Carbon monoxide blocks hemoglobin which can lead to death.
S02+H20 -Sulphuric acid - Acid rain.

4.7 Energy Efficiency

Losses in the owl is from respiration, producing energy for flight, digestion, movement, the nervous system.
All organisms finally die and are broken down by micro-organisms living on the dead and decaying remains of other micro-organisms.
100Kj of grass energy represents grass eaten by the herbivore.
Mouse have to walk around and find their food and carry out the process of respiration.
90Kj of energy left is lost from respiration and undigested food.

4.6 Energy and substances in food chains

- Bushgrass eaten by impala - Bushgrass is the producer, Impala is the primary consumer, leopard is the secondary consumer, lion is the tertiary
- producer turns light energy into chemical energy - takes the form of organic molecules including carbohydrates, proteins and lipids --> what we call food
- These molecules are composed of C-H bonds, C-O bonds, C-C bonds, O-H bonds and C-N bonds - ALL represent energy
- C H O N are the substances/matter - contain the energy from the sunlight
- Impala consumes this for growth and respiration and life processes - then the leopard consumes the impala passing on the same molecules, reorganizes them into leopard form and then to the lion who reorganizes them as well
- What is passing is the 'matter' and energy (in the bonds)

These molecules are composed of C-H bonds, C-O bonds, C-C bonds, O-H bonds and C-N bonds - ALL represent energy.

4.5b Food Webs

Food webs allow better description of the ecosystem.
Food web allows us to show organisms feeding at different trophic levels.
Organisms can have multiple predators.
Organisms may be feeding on multiple pray.
Results in food chains becoming linked.
eg:
- producer is grass
- P.C - rabbit, beetles, slugs, mice, woodlice
- S.C - small birds, badger, hawk
- T.C - Hawk

4.5a Food Chains

- Food China links together Producer to the 1st consumer, 2nd consumer and 3rd consumer.
- Only one organism per trophic level
- Food chain cannot show an organism being an omnivore
- Cannot show them feed at more than 2 trophic levels
- Food chains show the flow of matter and energy

4.4 Trophic Levels

- trophic means to feed
- carrot plant - photosynthesis - PRODUCER
- carrot fly - is a herbivore because it is eating part of the carrot plant - PRIMARY CONSUMER
- Fly catcher - Carnivore because it eats the carrotfly - SECONDARY CONSUMER
- Sparrow Hawk - Top carnivore eats the flycatcher - TERTIARY CONSUMER


Producer turns light energy into chemical energy.
Primary Consumer takes in the chemical energy of the plant and changes it into chemical energy of the fly.
All organisms die and are then broken down by decomposers of fungi and bacteria.

4.3 Quadrates samples

The sample needs to be random (bias).
The second part of the sample is that it needs to be representative (large).
A sample needs to be big enough so the estimate has to be close to the real population.
The grid system is going to work like the x,y coordinates on a graph you would draw.
The random numbers are used to generate a number for the x and y coordinates and will tell us where to take a sample from.

The sample needs to be random (bias).
The second part of the sample is that it needs to be representative (large).
A sample needs to be big enough so the estimate has to be close to the real population.
The grid system is going to work like the x,y coordinates on a graph you would draw.
The random numbers are used to generate a number for the x and y coordinates and will tell us where to take a sample from.

4.2 Quadrates

Quadrates are used to estimate the population size of an organism in two different areas.
All ecosystems are made up of a number of populations which formed the community.
The technique is called quadrating, it is based on squares and can be made from an material.
They form square grids which can consist of 0.25 meter or 1 meter.
Quadrates are a method of sampling different locations so populations can be compared in two different locations.

image from this video:

4.1 Ecosystems

A community of organisms consist of a population of different species.
The habitat includes the non biological factors.
The environment could have the cycle of daylight with dark, the temperature, rainfall, humidity and slope of the land.
All the factors have something in common; they are all non biological.
The community which is made up from different species interact with each other.

image from this video:

Image: Parts of the Apple (Fertilisation)

Core:

Seeds:

Surrounding of core and leftover stigma and other parts:

Fruit of outside that attracts animal:

3.4 - Plant Fertilisation

-The pollen tubes will only complete if they are from the same species
Pollen grains on stigma - germinate and tube begins to grow downwards
- One tube goes down to ovule - nucleus travels down this tube - into ovule
4 things will happen
1. Pollen nucleus will fertilise the ovule --> formation of zygote --> grown in to embryonic plant
2. outside of ovule forms seed coat (TESTA)
3. Inside formation of seed (cotyledons) - food stores for the seedling -- supports plant until it develops first sets of leaves
4. Thickening of the walls of the ovary/carpel - plant will put energy (sugars, proteins) - will form the fruit - developed from the wall.

Looking at a Plant

3.3b - Wind Pollination

- Transfer of pollen grains from anther by air, then carried by wind to the Stigma.
- Grass - No colour in the petals and no scent to attract insects so no point to produce these, waste of energy when it is a wind pollinated plant.
- Anthers hang well clear of any basic flower structure, so exposed to the wind.
- Stigma, really large surface area, feather like structure to catch pollen grains.
- Probably moves more efficiently through the air.

3.3a - Insect Pollination

- A pollination flower transfers pollen grain from the anther to a stigma of a plant.
- A pollen is a small structure that contains male nuclei.
- Transfer in an insects pollinated plant is taken place by insects.
- Its necessary for this plant to attract insects.
- If pollen goes from one plant to another this is called cross pollination.

Structure - Petals
- Stamen (male part of the plant) - Anther (pollen grains), Filament
- Carpel (female Part of the plant) - Stigma, Style and Ovary (ovules)

Video: 2.81 Phototropism

- Phototropism. Photo = Light. Tropism = Growth in response to light. Shows towards the light
- If light comes from all directions the stem will grow forwards and upwards.
- If light comes from lateral light source the stem will start growing towards the light.
- Light on one side, causes movement of opposite side of a compound, Auxin (plant hormone).
- Auxin causes more growth to the plant which makes the plant grow in the other direction an also causes the plant to bend.
- Cell division is called mitosis which means that the cells multiply.

Video: 2.80 Geotropism

Geo of Geotropism stands for gravity and tropism stands for growth response.
- Geotropic. Geo = Gravity. Tropic = Growth response
- Embryonic root grows downwards in a seed.
- It SHOULD grow upwards.
- If you take the same seed but rotated the shoot then grows upwards and the Embryonic root will grow downwards.

Video: 2.79 Plants and stimuli

- Stimuli are changes in the environment, Temperature or light.
- Plants have receptors that detect stimuli and turn into response
- Response - Take form of growth - Tropism, involving light (phototropism)
- Tropism, involving Gravity (Geotropism)
The light comes in all directions meaning that the light will grow forward.
If light comes into the plant sideways that means that the plant will grow in the direction the light is coming in.
The light on one side causes the plant to move to the opposite side.
Auxin causes more growth to the plant which makes the plant grow in the other direction an also causes the plant to bend.
Cell division is called mitosis which means that the cells multiply

2.55 Rate of Transpiration

- Transpiration is the loss of water through the leaf (caused by evaporation and diffusion through stomatal pore) 
- absorption of sunshine generates heat - transforms the water into heat 
- Concentration gradient for Water Vapour 
- if big difference then high rate of transpiration - factors: low humidity, high winds (wind blows away water vapour), high temperature (more evaporation), high light intensity ( higher rates of Photosynthesis) All result in FAST DIFFUSION 
- if small difference then low rate of transpiration - factors: high humidity, low wind speed (water vapour builds up around pore - gradient shallow), low temperature (less evaporation), low light intensity (rate of photosynthesis will be low and slow so water movement will be low and slow) 

2.54 Transpiration

• Transpiration is a process like evaporation.
• it is the loss of water vapor from parts of the plants. (similar to sweating)
• Leaf transpiration occurs through stomata.
• The openings in the stomata are what allows the vapor to escape and to allow other things in such as C02.
• Transpiration also cools plants and allows mass flow of mineral nutrients and water from the roots.

Parts of the plant and functions

- Branching root pattern increases surface area, which speeds up the rate of absorption.

- Cell wall extends, which creates a greater surface area for more intake of water.

- Epidermal also specialised to maximise surface area, again for absorption of Water.

- Active Transport of minerals at the bottom of the root hair to the xylem.

- Osmosis - from dilute region (outside) to a concentrated region (inside where the cells are full of minerals)

Images: Animal and Plant Cell table

In a write up investigation we found this graph.
This shoes the different levels of light intensity and how it affected the rate of reaction with the enzymes that are used in photosynthesis. Because the more heated light the more heat.

As you can see the blue line which is not the highest intensity gave the enzymes the most energy, but the brown line (which is the highest) is too much which is de naturing the enzyme which then doesn’t allow the enzyme to use the lock and key mechanism which slows down the reaction.

Here you can see the lock and key mechanism which is used to create the end result: sugar.
But when the heat from the sunlight reacts on this it changes its speed and the quicker the lock and key collide together the quicker it can create the sugar which then fuels photosynthesis quicker. But when it gets to hot which it shows in the first graph its starts to de nature the lock and key edges shown in this diagram:

Conclusion:
To conclude the more heat the faster the enzymes react but too much it denatures.

2.53 T1

10/10
100%

2.53 Root Structure

Root Hair cell:


Root Hair cell
These cells are found near to the tip of the roots.
Most water enters the root through them.
The thin hair-like extension of each cell gives a large surface for water to enter across.